Applying 2 Corinthians 6:14

Mixed marriages – between a believer and an unbeliever – are a common problem in churches. According to a 2010 survey, 42% of marriages in America are interfaith marriages, and 30% of evangelicals are married to someone from a different faith.[2] The standard response from preachers and Bible commentators is to cite 2 Corinthians 6:14 – an answer ingrained into the evangelical mindset.[3]

Do not be unequally yoked with unbelievers. (ESV)

However, it is unlikely that Paul was speaking of mixed marriages in this verse.[4] Paul actually encourages believers to remain in a mixed marriage (1 Cor. 7:12–16), contradicting his message to separate from the marriage if marriage is the point of this passage (2 Cor. 6:17).[5] John Calvin wrote, “Many are of opinion that he speaks of marriage, but the context clearly shows that they are mistaken.”[6] There may be a secondary application to marriage if we tie the passage to texts like Deuteronomy 7:3, Ezra 9:12, and Nehemiah 13:25, but mixed marriage is not Paul’s thrust in 2 Corinthians 6:14–7:1.[7] Paul is talking about more significant and more insidious issues than marriage, and we tend to miss the powerful applications we should make as preachers when we become obsessed with the issue of mixed marriage.

How should we apply this verse? What is Paul’s practical thrust in 2 Corinthians 6:14–7:1? Applications are potent tools in the preacher’s toolbox. How we apply a text can either reinforce the meaning of the text, undercut it, or even misuse it. People will often remember the application long after we give them the explanation and an application divorced from the accurate explanation leads to the abuse of God’s Word. God is the teacher. The Bible is His teaching. Therefore, we must explain and apply the Scripture to carry out what God intended the Scripture to accomplish in people’s lives. The contemporary life parallels that we draw in our sermons must reflect the objectives God had when He inspired the text.

HOW DO WE MAKE OUR CLPs?

Contemporary life parallels should be drawn from the pragmatic thrust of the original author as demonstrated in the context of the original text. When we do this, our CLPs will be more powerful because they will be carrying out God’s intention in the passage. We start with exegesis to determine the argument of the original author. Then, we look to the context to see how that argument relates to our modern hearers. The closer our CLPs are to the original context, the more influential the application since people can see that they rise from the Scripture and not the preacher.

Many preachers view the context and setting of the text as the husk of an ear of corn. We look at it, but the quicker we can shuck the corn to get to the kernels underneath, the better we can preach the text. We miss the power of the husk. It is in the context that we find the applications. Don’t shuck the corn too fast. We will find the most effective parallels from their world to ours when we use the context to drive our applications.

WHAT IS THE CONTEXTUAL FRAMEWORK OF 2 CORINTHIANS 6:14?

We must address a basic question before we delve into the contextual issues. Who are the ἄπιστοι? We must not be unequally yoked to them, but to whom is Paul referring? There are three major interpretations of the ἄπιστοι. 1) They are non-Christians. 2) They are faithless Christians. 3) They are the false apostles (2 Cor. 10–13).[8]

Michael Goulder argues that the ἄπιστοι are not pagans but faithless Christians. He ties this passage to 1 Corinthians 5:9–13, where Paul tells the Corinthians to separate from immoral believers but not to separate from unbelievers. We are, then, to avoid being unequally yoked with compromising Christians in his view.[9] A view that has gained significant popularity in recent years is that Paul is referring to the false apostles who led the opposition to his ministry in Corinth. The advantage of this interpretation is that it smooths out the apparent tension with the surrounding context. Paul is seeking reconciliation with the Corinthians, who the false apostles were misleading to reject his leadership (2 Cor. 6:11–13; 7:2–4).[10]

However, I think the majority view remains the best view. Paul is talking about pagans or unbelievers in this passage. There are two problems with the traditional understanding of the text. 1) It must deal with the abrupt and awkward contextual transition, and 2) the traditional view must deal with the tension over Paul’s emphasis not to separate from unbelievers (1 Cor. 5:9–13). William Webb gives satisfactory solutions to these tensions and a strong defense of the traditional interpretation if you want to examine it in more depth.[11]

For our purposes in this paper, I adopt the traditional position that Paul is talking about not being yoked together with unbelievers. The command does not prohibit social contact with unbelievers in keeping with what Paul says in 1 Corinthians 5. We are to engage the world as we witness for Christ. However, we must not become entangled in any relationship that demands our loyalty above our loyalty to Christ. The command is a call to holiness (2 Cor. 7:1) and a separation from the worldly/fleshly wisdom that filled the Corinthian church and created conflict with Paul.[12] The Christians’ pursuit of worldly wisdom was leading them into idolatry as they joined unbelievers in their religious, political, and cultural loyalties. Don’t be unequally yoked with unbelievers in any covenantal connection that will compromise your loyalty to Christ.

So then, what are the guiding principles for our applications?

Our text introduces a digression sandwiched between Paul’s calls for renewed affection. Paul opens wide his heart to them (2 Cor. 6:11) and pleads that they would open wide their hearts to him (2 Cor. 6:13). He returns to the theme of personal reconciliation after the digression on unequal yoking (2 Cor. 7:2). The issues Paul is addressing have caused a significant rift between the church of Corinth and Paul. An unequal yoking with unbelievers is at the heart of that rift. Mismating with unbelievers leads to divided loyalty. Divisions among Christians develop whenever loyalty to worldly causes supersedes loyalty to Christ and His church. Whatever applications we make should align with this emphasis.

A mixed marriage application would have to be about people entering a marriage, not people already in a marriage, since Paul has said they should not leave a mixed marriage (1 Cor. 7:12–14). The imperative plus the participle could be commanding someone not to enter a state of unequal yoking, but the context rules out such a potential mismating. Paul is dealing with actual unequal yoking. It has been going on and is the cause of the rift in relationships. He exhorts the Corinthians to cleanse themselves from the unholiness of unequal yoking (2 Cor. 7:1). He also calls them to “come out from their midst and be separate” (2 Cor. 6:17), thereby denying a mixed marriage referent.[13] Whatever applications we draw from the text must be about actual unequal yoking, not merely potential unequal yoking.

Undoubtedly, one of the most direct “activity referents” for this passage is joining pagans at their temple feasts because of the linguistic similarities between this passage and 1 Corinthians 8:10 and 10:14–22.[14] Idolatry is central to what Paul means when he talks about being unequally yoked. It is not merely entering into relationships with unbelievers that he has in view. It is the kind of relationship that leads Christians into idolatry. Eating meat at the temple feasts of the pagans yoked the church of Christ with the power of Belial. The temple of God in this verse is a corporate reference, not an individual reference, since the pronoun is plural, not singular (2 Cor. 6:16). Paul is talking about the church as a whole being the temple of God (1 Cor. 3:16–17, not 1 Cor. 6:19).[15] Our applications should concentrate on how the testimony of the church of Christ is compromised when we yoke our Christian identity with the idols of this world.

As I have said, this verse rules out a reference to mixed marriages (1 Cor. 7:12–16). Paul is addressing cultural syncretism. Paul cites Isaiah 52:11, which was addressed to Israel after they had been taken captive because of their idolatry. They were to come out of that captivity and touch nothing unclean as they purified themselves to be the people of God once again. The danger that the Corinthians faced was similar. They were being drawn into idolatry through their cultural syncretism. They were being taken captive by the idols of this world. The kingdom of Christ must be kept free from the control of the kingdoms of Satan.[16] Come out from any binding relationships that lead us to add the idols of our culture to our worship of Christ. Our applications should warn Christians about the dangers of cultural syncretism.

The passage begins with a command to avoid being unequally yoked with unbelievers. In the middle, Paul focuses on the holiness of the church as the corporate temple of God. He concludes his argument by calling for the church to cleanse herself from “all defilement of flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of God.” Yoking with unbelievers compromises the holiness of the church.[17]  John Calvin writes, “In short, it comes to this, that unless they would have everything thrown into confusion, they must refrain from the pollutions of the wicked. … As there is an irreconcilable variance between Christ and Satan, so we also must keep aloof from partnership with the wicked.”[18] Our applications should call believers to cleanse themselves from any partnership that pollutes our spiritual vitality in Christ.

WHAT IS THE PRACTICAL THRUST OF 2 CORINTHIANS 6:14?

We can now triangulate three focal points to determine the practical thrust of the text. 1) Opposition to Paul had developed among Corinthian Christians who wanted to enjoy the benefits of their non-Christian connections. 2) The core warning deals with idolatry as Christians joined pagans in the temple feasts. 3) Christians are to separate from any entanglements with the idols of their culture that might compromise their loyalty to Christ. We can triangulate from these focal points to determine the pragmatic setting guiding our applications.

Members of the church had rejected Paul’s warnings about eating with pagans in the temple feasts (1 Cor. 10:14ff). They did not understand or refused to accept the full cultural implications of belonging to Christ in distinction from the world. These Christians, probably mostly affluent Gentile males since they could join in the temple feasts, pursued the worldly partnerships that could ensure their material success over their loyalty to the community of faith. The background verse behind Paul’s argument is Deuteronomy 11:16.[19]

Beware that your hearts are not deceived, and that you do not turn away and serve other gods and worship them.

RELIGIOUS CONTEXT

Idols are the icons of human desire, and Corinth was a city designed to fulfill those desires. It was a wealthy, cosmopolitan city with many temples to various gods and goddesses dotting the landscape. People worshiped Dionysius, Neptune, Pan, Artemis, Zeus, Athena, and Poseidon. There was also a temple to Octavia, the sister of Augustus Caesar.[20] All gods and goddesses were viewed as patrons who bestowed material benefits on those who paid them homage. The gods were anthropomorphic characters, like humans with superpower capabilities. The gods and goddesses of the Roman world represented the desires and values of the humans who worshiped them.

Dominating the skyline was the Acrocorinth, a double-peak mountain located southwest of the city where the Temple of Aphrodite (Venus) stood. Aphrodite was the goddess of sexual love and beauty. Supposedly, perhaps fictionally, the temple housed 1,000 female prostitutes to serve the needs of the worshipers. The Temple of Apollo was one of the iconic features of Corinth. Apollo was the god of prophecy, oracles, music, poetry, archery, and disease. He was particularly known for his protection of young children. The third and perhaps most influential temple was the Sanctuary of Asclepieion. Asclepius was the god of medicine and healing. His sanctuary included an infirmary and places for patients to recover near the fountain of Lerna. Archaeologists have found nearly 900 clay models of human heads and organs. The monuments of Asclepios show him carrying a staff with a snake wrapped around it, indicating his healing powers. Today, the staff with a snake is a common symbol of the medical profession and is the Worldwide Health Organization’s (WHO) logo.[21]

People did not gather for corporate worship in the temples. The temple was the residence of the deity, so a cult statue was housed inside the temple. Sacrifices were performed outside the temple, where the people would gather to eat a meal in the presence of the god who presided from his residence. Many temples included dining rooms and kitchens to serve the meals.[22] The god was viewed as the patron who provided the desires of their lives.

Meals were held in the temple precincts for many reasons, including birthdays. Temples functioned like our finest restaurants today, where people gathered with friends and family to enjoy good times. Most people didn’t regularly eat meat at home, but it was regularly consumed in the temple in honor of the god or goddess. Religion was not merely an element of these feasts. Religion was the central feature of the meals. The god whose temple grounds were the location of the social event was the honored guest and unseen host of the feast. The people praised the god whose beneficence made their enjoyable feast possible.[23] This is why Paul was ambivalent about eating meat offered to idols in private homes (1 Cor. 10:25, 27), but eating meat offered to idols in the temple crossed the line (1 Cor. 10:14, 20–22). Such an event in the temple is an unequal yoking with unbelievers.

COMMERCIAL CONTEXT

Corinth was a commercial hub of the Roman world. The city controlled the trade route between Rome and Asia across the narrow isthmus between the Peloponnesian Peninsula and the Greek mainland. Ships would unload their cargo at either the port city of Lechaeum or Cenchrea and haul the materials across a road known as the diolkos to the other port city. Wealth and luxury marked the city of Corinth. The society valued status and influence gained through wealth, which was worshiped like a god. A person’s standing in society was primarily determined by their prosperity, and the path to prosperity was paved in the temples.[24]

Temples were the banks of the ancient world. Because they were considered sacred, they were safe places to deposit money and valuables. The state treasury would often be held in a temple, but wealthy individuals also deposited their private funds in temples. The result was that many business transactions took place within the temple precincts. Temples performed other functions as well. They often housed libraries, and civic leaders used them as places for public assemblies. Legal hearings were held in temples. Business and religious associations often met in the temple dining areas to discuss their association business.[25]

The economic foundation of the Greco-Roman world was built on the patron/client relationship. Most of the wealth was held in the hands of a few. It was an honor/shame culture, so the wealthy sought honor through the use of their wealth. They would sponsor clients with the funds needed to be successful in exchange for the honor and loyalty the clients would pledge to them.[26] The patron/client relationship was the backbone of success in Corinth, so if a Christian wanted to be successful, he needed to pledge his loyalty to a patron who could grant him the money to build his business. These patron/client relationships were solidified at meals in the temple complex under the watchful eye of the patron’s patron, the local deity. Many Christians were caught in this economic bind because wealth and prestige were the culture’s primary values, and pursuing those values meant pledging loyalty to a patron. Pledging loyalty to a patron meant pledging loyalty to the patron’s god.

POLITICAL CONTEXT

The Roman emperor was considered the supreme patron of the Roman empire and was called “savior” and “son of God,” among other honorary titles.[27] The Romans had destroyed the Greek city of ancient Corinth, so Julius Caesar rebuilt it in 44 B.C. and established it as a Roman colony. He settled it with his veteran soldiers as a reward for their service. Located in Greece, the city was “thoroughly Roman” by Paul’s day.[28] During this period, the Romans renovated the Temple of Apollo in Corinth to house the imperial cult.[29] A Roman temple had recently been built at the west end of the forum when Paul planted the church. This monument to the emperor’s patronage housed images to celebrate the imperial cult.[30]

Everywhere Paul walked in Corinth, he would be reminded of the cult of the emperor. Coins bore his image. Shrines to Augustus and his sons dotted the city streets. Occasional and regular celebrations of the emperor filled the Corinthian calendar. Every other year, the Isthmian Games were held in Corinth. Rome added two programs to the games. These imperial contests were designed to honor the emperor.[31] Furthermore, the imperial cult was embedded in the worship of the traditional gods and goddesses in the Greek temples of Corinth. Images of the emperor shared the same sacred space as the images of the local deities. The people treated the emperor as the chief priest of the gods, the pontifex maximus, through whom the gods dispensed their favors and gifts. He was the ultimate patron who deserved honor for all his benefits.[32]

Christians faced great pressure to participate in the cult of the emperor from their neighbors and government officials in the city.[33] The wealth and prosperity of the city depended on honoring the patron whose benefits they enjoyed, so Christians were expected to attend the feasts in the temples and proclaim their loyalty to the emperor. The Sophists were very active in Corinth. These traveling speakers used rhetoric to entertain and influence the people through their speeches in the temples and forums of Corinth.[34] Crowds flocked to hear them speak because they grabbed the headlines with their rhetorical pyrotechnics. We know they were drawing Christians away from the faith because Paul spent the opening chapters of 1 Corinthians attacking their influence in the church (1 Cor. 1–2).

Socio-economic pressures pushed many ambitious young Christians in Corinth to succumb to the idolatry of their culture to get ahead in life. These leaders opposed Paul and his influence in the church. They considered him archaic and backward, lacking the skills and connections to be successful in the world. Paul responds that they are mismating their loyalties. They wanted to be yoked with unbelievers to gain power and prosperity, but they were joining the idolatry of their culture. Paul attacks their syncretism. These oppositional leaders thought they could worship the idols of success and worship Christ in church simultaneously. Paul says, “No!” “What harmony does Christ have with Belial?” Christ is supreme. Don’t put Christ in the same yoke with the idols of this world.

WHAT ARE SOME SAMPLE CLPs?

What legitimate contemporary life parallels can we draw from the context of 2 Corinthians 6:14? Our CLPs will center on syncretism. Whenever we pair Christ with modern idols, we yoke ourselves with pagans. We mismate Christ with this world whenever we promise our loyalty to a company or country above Christ. Whenever we identify Christianity with a social or political cause, we compromise the testimony of the church.

Modern idols are no different than ancient idols. The temples housed the statues of gods and goddesses, but they were merely icons of human desires. They were the patrons people praised to get what they wanted in life. An idol is anything we want more than we want Christ. Modern idols include success and career, money and fame, pleasure and sports, sex, and health. We worship these idols not in ancient temples but in stadiums and arenas, theaters and auditoriums, internet forums and local restaurants, political rallies, and the halls of government. We can draw our CLPs from any of these and many other venues. Linking our Christian faith with the goals and agendas of our pagan world is an unequal yoking. There is a higher authority, a greater loyalty, that should drive our lives.

A friend of mine worked as the general manager of a large car dealership. He was responsible to the owner for the success of the business. He eventually discovered that many salespeople would lie to customers to make their sales quotas. They would tell people on the phone that a car was available for a specific price, knowing they didn’t even have it on the lot. The goal was to get the person into the dealership and sell them another car. He confronted one salesperson about it when the customer complained to him. He told the salesperson to sell him a comparable car for the same price, even at a loss to fulfill the promise. Eventually, he resigned from the job and told his boss he couldn’t live that way. His integrity was worth more than his job. Christians often face tough choices in the workplace where the idols of success and career can cause them to become unequally yoked with unbelievers.

January 6 revealed a shocking idolatrous syncretism in American Christianity. The mob attacking the capitol unfurled a massive banner at the top of the steps proclaiming, “JESUS 2020,” while marchers carried flags announcing, “TRUMP 2020.” An American flag blew in the wind as the mob broke down the doors to the capitol building. On one side of the flag, the words read, “Jesus is my Savior,” and on the other side of the flag were the words, “Trump is my President.” In the crowd, a man yelled, “Give it up if you believe in Jesus,” and the crowd cheered. Then he shouted again, “Give it up if you believe in Donald Trump,” and the crowd cheered even louder. People held wooden crosses with the words “Jesus Saves” in bold print. The syncretism of pagan and Christian symbols – political and gospel messages – fused Caesar and God into the idol of nationalism. Despite Paul’s warning in 2 Corinthians 6:14, most white, evangelical Christians aligned themselves with Donald Trump so entirely that the gospel became indistinguishable from a politician on January 6. “JESUS 2020” and “TRUMP 2020” merged into one message.[35]

I have long told people, “I am a registered political independent by biblical conviction. I refuse to belong to a political party for spiritual reasons.” My biblical foundation is 2 Corinthians 6:14.

Do not be unequally yoked with unbelievers. (ESV)

Cal Thomas said:

The Book of Isaiah says that God views all the nations of the world as nothing but a drop in the bucket. All means all. Now, has America been uniquely blessed? Sure. But it could also be uniquely cursed. You better be careful, because patriotism quickly turns into idolatry. There’s more than one way to be an idol worshipper. In the Old Testament, you had Moloch and child sacrifices and all this stuff. But Satan is subtle. We don’t have statues now; we have political parties and presidential candidates.[36]

Cal Thomas, the syndicated columnist, worked closely with Jerry Falwell Sr., eventually becoming the Vice President of the Moral Majority. He and Ed Dobson, the Dean of Liberty University, worked hard to promote the movement. Manipulation spiritualized by prayer persuaded potential donors to give. Jesus, of course, would have been a Republican. Scare tactics were the norm, and bullying little old ladies to give $20 by invoking the wrath of God was common. They worked closely with one fundraiser who was working both sides of the aisle. He would raise money for the Moral Majority and raise money for the National Organization of Women. Then, he would go to the bar and joke about the stupidity of Christians.  Thomas and Dobson both warned Jerry Falwell Sr. to “stop confusing spiritual authority for political authority.” Finally, both Thomas and Dobson quit. They were unequally yoked to a political cause that was damaging the testimony of Christ. The two co-wrote a book in 1999 entitled Blinded by Might.[37]

Here is one last example, a positive one. It was nearing midnight as I followed my guide through the Djemaa-El-Fnaa (Central Square) at Marrakech in Morocco. We were entering the famous Souk of Marrakech, a labyrinth of shops adjacent to the square. I followed my guide as we wound our way through the maze of streets until we came to the shop of a Christian leatherworker. We sat down for some tea, and I looked around the shop. It was ten by fifteen feet with a circular stair that led to his sleeping quarters. The shop was filled with beautiful leather goods, and I purchased some to take home. I noticed a picture of Jesus behind his workbench and asked him about it. The expectation in Morocco was that each shop owner must show his allegiance to Islam by mounting a picture of King Hassan II in the shop. This young Christian refused, and as a result, his business was severely hurt. Most would not purchase his goods, though they were exquisitely made. He shared with me that Jesus was his king. He was a child of the King of Kings, and he wanted all to know where his allegiance lay. He would be loyal to King Jesus even if it cost him lost business.[38]

[1] Russell Moore, “Is Interfaith Marriage Always Wrong, Given that the Bible Teaches Us Not to Be ‘Unequally Yoked’?” Christianity Today, July 10, 2013. https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2013/june/is-interfaith-marriage-always-wrong-given-that-bible-teache.html

[2] Naomi Schaefer Riley, “Is Interfaith Marriage Always Wrong, Given that the Bible Teaches Us Not to Be ‘Unequally Yoked’?” Christianity Today, July 10, 2013. https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2013/june/is-interfaith-marriage-always-wrong-given-that-bible-teache.html

[3] Philip Edgcumbe Hughes, Paul’s Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1962, 245. Jamieson, R., Fausset, A. R., & Brown, D. (1997). Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible (Vol. 2, p. 311). Logos Research Systems, Inc.

[4] Ralph Martin, 2 Corinthians in Word Biblical Commentary, vol. 40, Waco, Texas: Word Books, 1986, 197. Charles Hodge, An Exposition of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1980, 165.

[5] Murray J. Harris, 2 Corinthians in The Expositors Bible Commentary, vol. 10, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing, 1976, 359.

[6] Calvin, J. (1998). 2 Corinthians (electronic ed., 2 Co 6:14–18). Ages Software.

[7] Webb, W. J. (1992). Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers Part 2 (of 2 parts): What Is the Unequal Yoke (ἑτεροζυγοῦντες) in 2 Corinthians 6:14? Bibliotheca Sacra, 149, 162–179.

[8] Webb, W. J. (1992). Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers Part 1 (of 2 parts): Who Are the Unbelievers (ἄπιστοι) in 2 Corinthians 6:14? Bibliotheca Sacra, 149, 27. Webb lists 5 interpretations, but some can be grouped together.

[9] Michael Goulder, “2 Cor. 6:14–7:1 as an Integral Part of Second Corinthians,” Novum Testamentum, Vol. 36, Fasc. 1, (January 1994), 47–57.

[10] Webb, W. J. (1992). Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers Part 1 (of 2 parts): Who Are the Unbelievers (ἄπιστοι) in 2 Corinthians 6:14? Bibliotheca Sacra, 149, 27–44. Webb gives an excellent summary and refutation of this view.

[11] Webb, W. J. (1992). Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers Part 2 (of 2 parts): What Is the Unequal Yoke (ἑτεροζυγοῦντες) in 2 Corinthians 6:14? Bibliotheca Sacra, 149, 162–179.

[12] David Starling, “The ἄπιστοι of 2 Cor 6:14: Beyond the Impasse,” Novum Testamentum, Vol. 55, Fasc. 1 (2013), 45–60.

[13] Webb, W. J. (1992). Unequally Yoked Together with Unbelievers Part 2 (of 2 parts): What Is the Unequal Yoke (ἑτεροζυγοῦντες) in 2 Corinthians 6:14? Bibliotheca Sacra, 149, 162–179.

[14] Webb, “Unequally Yoked,” 149, 162–179.

[15] Ben Witherington III, Conflict & Community in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 and 2 Corinthians, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1995, 405.

[16] Hughes, 2 Corinthians, 255–256.

[17] Starling, “The ἄπιστοι of 2 Cor 6:14,” 59.

[18] Calvin, 2 Corinthians.

[19] Witherington, Conflict & Community, 402–406.

[20] Williams, D. (2016). Corinthians, First Letter to the. In J. D. Barry, D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair Wolcott, L. Wentz, E. Ritzema, & W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.

[21] https://www.thecollector.com/asclepius/; https://www.corinth-museum.gr/en/archaeological-site/sanctuary-of-asklepieion/

[22] Cousland, J. R. C. (2000). Temples, Greco-Roman. In Dictionary of New Testament background: a compendium of contemporary biblical scholarship (electronic ed., pp. 1186–1188). InterVarsity Press.

[23] Witherington, Conflict & Community, 188, 222.

[24] Williams, D. (2016). Corinthians, First Letter to the. In J. D. Barry, D. Bomar, D. R. Brown, R. Klippenstein, D. Mangum, C. Sinclair Wolcott, L. Wentz, E. Ritzema, & W. Widder (Eds.), The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.

[25] Cousland, J. R. C. (2000). Temples, Greco-Roman. In Dictionary of New Testament background: a compendium of contemporary biblical scholarship (electronic ed., pp. 1186–1188). InterVarsity Press.

[26] deSilva, D. A. (2000). Patronage. In Dictionary of New Testament background: a compendium of contemporary biblical scholarship (electronic ed., pp. 766–771). InterVarsity Press.

[27] John K. Chow, “Patronage in Roman Corinth,” in Paul and Empire: Religion and Power in Roman Imperial Society, Editor: Richard Horseley, Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 1997, 105.

[28] Williams, D. (2016). Corinthians, The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.

[29] https://www.corinth-museum.gr/en/archaeological-site/temple-of-apollo/

[30] Chow, “Patronage,” 107.

[31] Chow, “Patronage,” 106–108.

[32] deSilva, D. A. “Patronage,” In Dictionary of New Testament background, electronic ed., pp. 766–771.

[33] deSilva, D. A. “Patronage,” In Dictionary of New Testament background, electronic ed., pp. 766–771.

[34] Williams, D. (2016). Corinthians, The Lexham Bible Dictionary. Lexham Press.

[35] David Christensen, “Caesar and God: Politics and the Gospel,” The Rephidim Project, 1/19/2021. https://www.rephidimproject.org/caesar-and-god-politics-and-the-gospel/

[36] Tim Alberta, “This is the Final Compromise: Donald Trump and the Implosion of the American Evangelical Movement,” Vanity Fair, 12/23. https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2023/12/donald-trump-and-the-implosion-of-the-american-evangelical-movement

[37] Alberta, “This is the Final Compromise, 12/23.

[38] David Christensen, Transformed by Adoption: The Spiritual Life of a Normal Christian, The Rephidim Project, 2014, 276-277.